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Chapter 1
Understanding Web Technologies
CONTENTS
I'd like to begin each chapter with a brief overview of what's
ahead. These lists might help you determine whether you would
like to skim through any material that you are already familiar
with.
By now it's hard to imagine how anyone can have missed learning
at least something about the World Wide Web and the Internet.
Mass-circulation newspapers and magazines and broadcast media
feature the Internet regularly. You often see Web page addresses
(known as Uniform Resource Locators, or URLs) in television
commercials and printed advertisements. The story of the meteoric
rise of Netscape Communications Corporation on the stock market
jumped from the financial page to the front page. Universities,
businesses, and other organizations have rushed to "get on
the Web," while entrepreneurs have moved equally quickly
to take advantage of this rush by setting up shop on the shoulders
of the Information Superhighway, hawking everything from Internet
connections to Web-page authoring to Web-related conferences.
You probably bought this book because you've been using the Web
and you see the potential to use its technology on an Intranet
within your organization. If you're wondering what an Intranet
is, you might think of it as "the Web on a LAN" (Local
Area Network). Obviously, there is much more to it than such a
simplistic definition. The rest of this book is all about exploring
the limitless possibilities of building and using an Intranet.
Using Windows NT as the server, of course.
Note |
For now, I assume you know the meaning of Web URLs, such as http://www.somecompany.com. If not, you might want to scan ahead to Chapter 5, "What You Need to Know About HTML" for an in-depth discussion about the different flavors of URLs and how they work.
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This chapter is an overall introduction to the Web, and it lays
a foundation for the rest of the book. Because you've probably
seen similar introductory material before, I'll put a particular
spin on the whole subject in this chapter by pointing to some
of the things you'll be able to do on your Intranet. As you read
the chapter, think of using your Web browser within your company
to view your own company information instead of outside Web pages.
Your corporate Intranet, then, is the implementation of World
Wide Web services within your organization.
The explosion of interest in the Internet is being driven by an
even more explosive growth of the Web. Nevertheless, and this
isn't meant merely in a pedantic sense, the Internet was here
first and has been for more than 20 years. The Internet can be
loosely defined as those computers and networks, worldwide, that
are interconnected using TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol).
A Brief History of TCP/IP and the Internet
In the 1970s, the United States Department of Defense (DoD) contracted
with researchers at the University of California at Berkeley and
a company named BBN to develop networking for DoD computers worldwide.
The primary objectives of the research project were to develop
computer networking that
- Worked on a variety of computer hardware.
- Operated over different communications media to link both
individual computers and computer networks.
- Was robust enough to automatically reconfigure itself in the
event of network failures.
More than after-the-fact Cold War speculation, the last of the
points relates to the possibility of large parts of the DoD network
disappearing in a nuclear war and the need for the network to
withstand it. In fact, today's Internet does exactly that: If
a large portion of the network were to disappear because of some
massive hardware failure, the rest of the network would simply
find a way around the service interruption and keep on working!
It's pretty amazing.
Even though the DoD funded most of the development of what came
to be known as TCP/IP networking, the free thinkers at Berkeley
managed to get permission to redistribute the network software
they developed and the specifics of its protocols written into
the contract with DoD. At about the same time, Berkeley was developing
its own revised version of the UNIX operating system software,
which it had licensed from AT&T (where UNIX was invented)
as a research project. In short, TCP/IP networking was dropped
right into BSD (Berkeley Software Distribution) UNIX, which was
then made available to other academic institutions, also for research
purposes, for the mere cost of a computer tape.
The wide distribution of these BSD tapes to other colleges, universities,
and research institutions was the beginning of the Internet. TCP/IP
networking not only allows individual computers to be linked into
a network, but it also allows networks of computers to be linked
to other networks with the appearance that all the computers on
all the linked networks are on the very same internet.
Note |
The word internet with a lowercase i refers to interconnected networks, perhaps on a university campus; whereas Internet with a capital I refers to the global interconnected network in which anyone can participate.
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Universities began building local networks, linking them together,
and connecting their local networks with remote networks at other
locations or other institutions-laying the foundation for today's
Internet explosion. The DoD built its own private Internet, called
MILNET, using TCP/IP, and many other U.S. Government agencies
set up networks as well, some of which eventually became part
of the Internet.
TCP/IP Implementations
Because the implementation nuts and bolts of TCP/IP networking
(that is, the detailed descriptions of the network protocols themselves)
were publicly defined in documents known as Requests for Comments,
software companies and individuals were free to develop and sell
or give away their own TCP/IP software. For example, the first
implementation of TCP/IP for the IBM PC was a university Master's
thesis project, and the resulting software was given away; the
authors went on to found FTP Software, Inc., makers of one of
today's leading TCP/IP software packages, OnNet for IBM PCs and
compatibles. Dozens of other vendors sell TCP/IP software for
PCs and Microsoft has wisely built it into both Windows NT and
Windows 95 as a standard feature.
Note |
If the term network protocol is unfamiliar to you, you might think of it as a language that one computer on the Internet can use to speak with any other computer on the Internet, even if they are of a completely different make and model. Note that the usual purpose of the phrase computer language describes a language between a human and a computer, but network protocols aren't really meant to be read by humans.
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Although the Internet has strong foundations in UNIX, Windows
NT and Windows 95 are not only capable of serving as powerful
Internet or Intranet platforms, but most folks find them much
easier to manage. One reason this book is written about Windows
is that the number of desktop PCs running these platforms far
surpasses those running all others combined. Consequently, any
Intranet project will need to integrate Windows applications.
This book will show you how to configure the PCs in your organization
using TCP/IP and Web technology to participate on your Intranet.
In an effort to compete against Microsoft's dominance of the desktop
operating systems market, several vendors (including IBM, Sun,
and Oracle) have announced plans to develop inexpensive computing
devices that will have TCP/IP networking built in. Not full-blown
PCs, but also not dumb terminals, these Internet Appliances would
include not only TCP/IP, but also graphical capabilities and World
Wide Web browser software. These appliances could prove to be
a valuable part of your Intranet, because they'd give users access
to any Web services you might make available; and at substantially
lower cost than full-capability PCs or workstations. Microsoft
Vice President Paul Maritz has indicated his view that these devices
will not ultimately prove to be successful at displacing the popular
PC. Although that must be taken as a biased opinion, it does appear
that the impact of Internet Appliances will depend on several
factors:
- How low can the cost go? Assuming
sufficient processing power to handle Web multimedia and a high-resolution
monitor/adapter to support 3-D graphics; it will be very hard
to get down to a suggested $500 price point. A hard disk is also
very useful as a cache for storing frequently accessed Web pages.
- Will consumers want to pay that price
for a machine without the capability to install custom applications
or store confidential files locally?
Only time will answer these questions. We should hear much more
as the concept and reality of Internet Appliances progresses in
1996.
Most people are familiar with the general idea of a computer network;
several computers in an office or other common environment are
connected together with wires to enable sharing of printers and
files, and to otherwise allow communication among them. The idea
of the Internet is much the same, only a lot bigger, but it also
has an important extra element. TCP/IP networking allows not only
the connection of local computers to each other, but also permits
networks to be connected to other networks. These connections
create internets (purposely not capitalized here), in which
it appears to users that the computers on all the connected networks
are part of a single, large internetwork. The same capabilities
of sharing devices and communicating data between computers exists,
but the sharing has been extended from just the computers on one
network to all the systems on all the connected networks.
Interconnected networks need not be in the same location or building;
they can be physically remote from each other with connections
using special-purpose data lines, satellite radio, infrared radio
links, cable TV wiring, or even ordinary telephone lines and modems.
Remote computers appear to become local, allowing file transfers,
electronic mail, printer and disk sharing, and many other features,
including, of course, access to the World Wide Web.
Internet Services
As previously stated, before there was a Web there was already
an Internet (now capitalized), a worldwide network of networks
interconnected using TCP/IP networking. Some of the major features
of the Internet include (although all of these were pre-Web, they
are still used):
- Internet Electronic Mail
for sending messages and attachments (including images and programs)
between users on remote computers.
- File transfers between remote computers using the file
transfer protocol (FTP).
- Remote login services (telnet) allowing users to log
into remote computers and use them as if they were local.
- Remotely searchable indexes of information, free software,
and other data.
- USENET News, the mother of all computer BBSs (bulletin
board systems).
Besides these major Internet services, many others have developed
over the lifetime of the Internet, some of which use combinations
of the above services. Using an Internet search tool called archie,
for example, you can search a database of free software and find
its location on the Internet just by sending a specially worded
e-mail message to a special address. Return e-mail services transfer
files to you, much like fax-back services, when you request them
via e-mail. Special-interest electronic mailing lists have developed
for like-minded people who want to discuss subjects ranging from
computers and networks themselves to spelunking and job searching.
Each of these (and many other) Internet services are useful and
powerful tools, and all are still widely used. Even before the
existence of the Web, the need for electronic mail capabilities
was driving substantial growth in the Internet. Each pre-Web
Internet service, however, has its own particular user interface
to be learned. Many of these interfaces are less than friendly
to non-technical users. Figure 1.1 shows an archie search using
a GUI software package (called WSARCHIE) included on the
CD-ROM with this book. Figures 1.2 and 1.3 show the same search
using a Web browser and fill-in form interface to the archie service.
The search term given in both cases is msie20.exe,
which is the filename of Microsoft's Internet Explorer.
Figure 1.1: WSARCHIE interface to archie Internet search service.
Figure 1.2: Web-based archie search.
As you can see in these figures, the Web interface is significantly
more accessible; the difference literally speaks for itself. Instead
of a raw list of anonymous FTP servers and lengthy directory paths,
you see a nicely formatted list of locations with the ability
to download the located file just by clicking the link. Even though
the WSARCHIE program is a very nice GUI, you still have to turn
around and use FTP, a completely different service with a different
user interface, to retrieve the file you want. Even assuming you
can find the data you want, which Internet program do you use
to access it? And where did you put the obscure set of instructions
for this particular program? Actually using the ante-Web
Internet then was not an easy proposition, particularly for casual
computer users.
Figure 1.3: Results of Web-based archie search.
The Birth of the Web
In 1993, Tim Berners-Lee and other researchers at the European
Particle Physics Lab (Conseil Europeen pour la Recherche Nucleaire,
or CERN) in Geneva, Switzerland, developed a means of sharing
data among their colleagues using something they called hypertext.
CERN users could view documents on their computer screens using
new browser software. Special codes embedded in these electronic
documents allowed users to jump from one document to another on
screen just by selecting a hyperlink. Internet capabilities
were built into these browsers. Just as a user could jump from
one text document on a computer to another, he could jump from
a document on one computer to a document on another remote computer.
Moreover, each of the major Internet services listed above was
added to the browser software. A researcher could transfer a file
from a remote computer to her local system, or log into a remote
system just by clicking on a hyperlink, rather than using the
clumsy FTP or Telnet mechanisms. CERN's breakthrough work is the
basis of today's World Wide Web and its Web server and browser
software (now being maintained by the World Wide Web Consortium)
were the first of their kind.
Note |
CERN has now moved on, or rather back, to its main mission of doing research on particle physics, but its Web-related legacy has been passed on to the World Wide Web Consortium, a group of academic and commercial organizations dedicated to the advancement of the Web. W3, as it's called, remains active in the development of the Web, and Berners-Lee is still right in the thick of things at W3. You may want to visit the W3 Web site at http://www.w3.org/.
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Unlike today's Web browsers, CERN's Web browser was a plain-text
package in which cursor keys were used to move around the computer
screen and the Enter key to select hyperlinks. While it could
access both hypertext documents and ante-Web Internet services
like FTP, Gopher, and Telnet, it had no graphical capabilities.
Marc Andreesen, a graduate student working part-time at the University
of Illinois National Center for Supercomputer Applications, picked
up CERN's work and turned it into what would become today's NCSA
Mosaic, the first graphical Web browser with point-and-click
capabilities. First developed for UNIX computer systems running
the X Window graphical user interface, NCSA Mosaic was quickly
ported to Microsoft Windows and Macintosh PC's. Mosaic rapidly
became the proverbial "killer application" for the Internet.
Just as Mosaic descended from the work at CERN, all subsequent
graphical Web browsers come from this common ancestor.
Besides NCSA Mosaic, there are a large number of other Web browsers,
including, of course, the widely used Netscape Navigator
package, now the leading Web browser in terms of market share,
and Microsoft Internet Explorer. (Incidentally, Marc Andreesen
left NCSA to co-found Netscape Communications Corporation.)
While this book concentrates on Microsoft Internet Explorer and
Netscape Navigator, there are a lot of Web browser software packages
to choose from besides these two. Depending on the type of workstations
you have on your LAN, you may need to consider browsers written
for platforms other than Windows. Netscape Navigator is available
on nearly every platform and Microsoft Internet Explorer is available
for Windows NT, Windows 95, Windows 3.1, and the Macintosh. Here
is a quick look at just a few of the other browsers available:
- NCSA Mosaic-A full-featured free
browser from the University of Illinois that runs on several operating
systems, though its performance on Windows is not quite as snappy
as Explorer or Navigator. It can be downloaded from this URL:
http://www.ncsa.uiuc.edu/SDG/Software/Mosaic/
- Cello-A free browser from Cornell University that runs under
Windows and OS/2.
- WinWeb-Shareware developed by Microelectronics and Computer
Technology Corporation that runs under Windows and OS/2.
- MacWeb-Shareware developed by Microelectronics and Computer
Technology Corporation that runs on Macs.
- Enhanced Mosaic-The commercial version of Mosaic from SpyGlass,
Inc. It's available for PCs and Macs.
- Chimera-Freeware from the University of Nevada that runs under
UNIX.
- Lynx plain-text browser-Freeware from Kansas University for
UNIX systems and low-end PCs (doesn't require Windows).
- W3C (formerly CERN)-This line-mode browser
is the original Web browser. It's freeware from the W3
Consortium.
How Web Browsers Work
Graphical or not, all Web browsers work in essentially the same
way. Look at what happens when you click on a hyperlink.
- Your browser reads a document written
in HTML and displays it for you, interpreting all the markup codes
in the document.
- When you click a hyperlink in that document,
your browser uses the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
to send a network request to a Web server to access the new document
or service specified by the hyperlink.
- Also using the HTTP protocol, the Web
server responds to the request with the document or other data
you requested.
- Your browser software then reads and interprets
that information and presents it to you in the correct format.
As you can see, a simple click on a hyperlink starts a pretty
significant series of events involving not only your Web browser
software but also a Web server somewhere on the Internet. Figure
1.4 shows this sequence of events.
Figure 1.4: Web browser/server communication using HTML and HTTP.
Note |
For purposes of your Intranet, it's important to note that Web servers always identify the type of data they send in response to browser requests. Most of the time the data returned is text data with HTML markup, but any kind of data can be returned. This bit of information is critical to the potential capabilities of your Intranet: As long as your Web server can identify the data it's sending, your users' Web browsers can be set up to handle almost any kind of data including word processing files, spreadsheets, and the datafiles used by a wide variety of other applications. This simple-but-powerful mechanism explained in detail in Chapter 12, "MIME and Helper Applications" is what you can use to turn your Intranet into an interactive tool for getting your company's everyday work done.
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Web browsers like Explorer or Navigator communicate over a network
(including the worldwide Internet) with Web servers, using HTTP.
Browsers send network messages to servers asking that specific
documents or services be provided by the server. The server returns
the document or service if it's available also using the HTTP
protocol, and the browser receives and understands it.
There are many network protocols spoken on the Internet, each
one for a specific and limited purpose. There are network protocols
for electronic mail, file transfers, and other services you may
have heard of, including Gopher, Telnet, and WAIS.
Each of these protocols works well for its own purpose, and you
can use individual programs on your computer that communicate
with the protocols to locate and retrieve information on the Net.
The HTTP protocol was designed to incorporate these, and other,
network protocols into a single protocol. What's important to
the World Wide Web user is that Web browsers speak the HTTP protocol,
taking care of locating, retrieving, and, most important, interpreting
the data, regardless of the actual underlying protocol or service.
Your Intranet will utilize the HTTP protocol and all the other
TCP/IP protocols it subsumes to provide point-and-click access
to a wide variety of your mission-critical information and services.
This is an important point, and we'll come back to it in the final
section of this chapter.
You don't have to have a UNIX computer system to set up and run
a World Wide Web server. In fact, this book will show you how
easy it is to run a Web server on Windows NT. Windows NT is an
order of magnitude easier to install and manage than UNIX or Netware,
in my personal opinion. Windows NT is also a very powerful and
secure operating system and many Web servers are available to
take advantage of its features.
Note |
For detailed information about setting up an Internet Web site on Windows NT (Server or Workstation) or Windows 95, please consult either of these two Sams.net books which I recently co-authored with Christopher Brown: Web Site Construction Kit for Windows NT and Web Site Construction Kit for Windows 95.
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This book will cover aspects of configuring Microsoft Internet
Information Server (IIS). Although all of the techniques in this
book will apply to any NT Web server, some of the reasons for
choosing IIS is that it comes free with Windows NT Server, it
is well integrated with the operating system, it includes strong
security features, and it was recently rated by PC Week Magazine
as the fastest NT Web server. (Of course, benchmark results are
a never-ending sea change.)
Information about setting up and using a Web Server is given in
Chapter 7, "Running the Intranet Web
Server". Since IIS only runs on Windows NT Server, you will
need to consider other software if you plan to run Windows NT
4.0 Workstation. NT Workstation 4.0 includes a peer Web server,
similar to IIS. Another very good free package is the EMWAC HTTPS.
It is included on the CD with Web Site Construction Kit for
Windows NT. Two powerful commercial servers that run on NT
Workstation are Purveyor WebServer and ILAR Concepts FolkWeb.
You'll probably want to dedicate a high-end machine to this task,
rather than trying to run a server on somebody's desktop PC while
it's in use-but this really depends on how much network traffic
your Intranet server will need to handle.
Note |
Several Windows NT Web Servers are discussed in Appendix B. For detailed information about the current features and capabilities of almost every Web server available, see http://www.webcompare.com/
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Chapter 3, "The Software Tools to
Build a Web" goes into more detail to help you select the
hardware and software to make up your Intranet.
Commercial Web Server Software Features
With the explosive growth in numbers of Intranet and WWW server
installations, most professional server software packages have
been adding features at an equally fast pace. What follows is
a list of some of these:
- Encryption of sensitive information (credit card numbers
and other personal or business information for example).
- Authentication of users accessing the server to ensure
confidentiality.
- Accurate tracking of who
accesses the server.
- Tracking of data retrievals,
so software and other data can actually be sold interactively
over the Net.
Of course you should also be able to expect commercial-grade support
from Web server software vendors. This is a potentially critical
matter especially if you don't have in-house expertise in managing
the software. Free software packages are invariably not free when
you have to provide your own support.
Although we've touched on this subject once or twice earlier,
it's worth specific, focused attention for your Intranet. The
HTTP protocol spoken by both Web servers and browsers includes
a number of other TCP/IP services:
- FTP (file transfer protocol)-usually
used for downloading files from one computer to another.
- Gopher-a menu-based hierarchical information retrieval system.
- USENET news-provides access to the world's largest computer
bulletin board system.
- Wide Area Information Servers (WAIS)-used for searching indexed
data using keywords.
- Electronic mail-often used to send
attached files using MIME (the subject of MIME will be covered
extensively in this book).
- Other services such as the previously-mentioned
archie service available directly or via fill-in forms using the
CGI mechanism.
Because these services are built into the HTTP protocol, your
Intranet can include any of them. Moreover, you can integrate
any of these services without requiring your users to learn the
service's native interfaces. Web browsers provide a common, point-and-click
front end to all these services. You can, for example, set up
an FTP server in your Intranet for distributing software updates
or any other computer data. Similarly, you can use USENET news
services as a means of collaboration and information sharing within
your organization. In either case, your users-the people who are
defined in Chapter 2, "Planning an
Intranet" as your Intranet's customers-need learn only one
interface, to access any of the services you're providing on your
Intranet. You will see throughout this book, and especially in
Chapter 11, that the Web browser is the
key.
This is true regardless of whether your network is connected to
the Internet. Because you need TCP/IP networking running in your
corporate network in order to set up an Intranet, you can turn
around and use this infrastructure to extend your Intranet. Doing
so enables you to include a wide variety of other TCP/IP network
services. Anonymous FTP, for example, need not be limited to the
outside world; you can use it within your company just as well.
Index internal data with WAIS, then make it available to your
users. Use e-mail distribution lists within your company and your
Web browser to read and send messages.
The upshot of this is that your Intranet need not be limited to
the passive retrieval of HTML documents, or to extended use of
helper applications described in this book. Because Web browsers
understand virtually all TCP/IP network protocols, you're free
to extend the capabilities of your Intranet to include any of
the TCP/IP services that might be useful to your company's or
organization's mission. Further, you can do so without incurring
the organizational overhead of teaching people to use each and
every different service that might be useful.
We will be discussing many of these ideas throughout the book
in greater detail. And you will see that utilizing TCP/IP on your
Intranet will serve you well when you are ready to open the door
to the Internet. For information about using Windows NT as a router,
please see Chapter 28, "Connecting
the Intranet and the Internet".
If you work with Windows NT or Windows 95 you've probably heard
about the new Internet push from Microsoft called ActiveX.
They announced several technologies under the umbrella of ActiveX
at the Professional Developer's Conference in San Francisco in
March, 1996. One day of the conference was even broadcast to dozens
of theaters around the U.S. where programmers could sit and watch
the "movies" as Microsoft explained their vision and
demonstrated many of the new features coming soon in their software
packages.
Depending on how you look at it, ActiveX is either the entire
Microsoft Internet strategy rolled into one word, or it is simply
a new name for the idea of fitting OLE custom controls onto the
Web. Some of the trade literature has been rather confusing on
this point, but mostly it is the latter. The fact that Microsoft
is coming out with several other Internet plans at the same time
as ActiveX, has led some to cast all of the technologies as "ActiveX".
I don't know if this is what their marketing wizards are trying
to accomplish, but it seems that many of the announcements do
not necessarily depend on ActiveX. Here is a quick breakdown of
a few of their recent initiatives:
- January purchase of FrontPage from Vermeer.
FrontPage will supposedly be bundled with Microsoft Office as
a mid-range Web content development tool.
- February release of the free Internet
Information Server for Windows NT. We will cover the setup of
this server in Chapter 7, "Running
the Intranet Web Server."
- March beta-release of the free Internet
Explorer 3.0 to serve as the platform for ActiveX on the Web.
Microsoft also demonstrated a third-party technology which allows
ActiveX to run in Netscape browsers for Windows.
- Development of Visual Basic Script to
compete with JavaScript using the new scripting tags in HTML 3.0.
This allows page designers a way to create custom functionality
based on the ActiveX controls they embed in the HTML.
- Development of ISAPI, included with IIS,
to offer significant performance advantages over traditional CGI
on UNIX. (See Chapter 19, "Getting
the Most Out of HTML with CGI" for more information.)
- Announcement of the Cryptography API developed
by RSA to be distributed with Windows NT and Windows 95. This
will allow software developers to write secure applications for
the Internet.
- Development of ActiveVRML to bring 3D
Web pages to Windows platforms. Microsoft has been doing a lot
of research on realistic graphics trying to obtain PC performance
comparable to high-end UNIX workstations.
- Release of Internet Assistant for Word,
Excel, PowerPoint, and Access provides convenient document conversion
from native formats to the Web and HTML.
- The release of Visual C++ 4.1 includes
support for ActiveX and ISAPI. A related free product is the Internet
Control Pack. It consists of OLE controls which give Visual C++
and Visual Basic programmers access to Winsock functionality.
- The purchase of dbWeb from Aspect Software
Engineering, which provides relational database features in Web
pages.
- The inclusion of a GUI Domain Name Server
in Windows NT 4.0 and the expansion of the Windows networking
Universal Naming Convention to include the concept of DNS.
- Beta-release of Sweeper, or the Windows Internet API, for
developers of client applications to more easily include support
for the Intranet and the Internet.
We will discuss some of these in more detail in Chapter 17,
"Understanding ActiveX Technologies." Keep in mind that
Netscape-and several other software vendors-already have in place
competing alternatives to many of these initiatives.
I've introduced the World Wide Web in this chapter, then put a
spin on it that's applicable to the use of its technology in a
corporate Intranet. We've introduced the following subjects, each
of which are covered in detail in other chapters:
- An overview of the World Wide Web and
the Internet.
- World Wide Web client software.
- World Wide Web servers and their software.
- Related TCP/IP networking technologies
and how they can be made a part of your Intranet.
- The new ActiveX technology from Microsoft.
Chapters 2, 3, 4,
and 5 will continue introducing the tools
of the Intranet and Internet. By the end of Part I, we will have
laid the groundwork for building your Intranet.

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